Monday, September 30, 2019
Stefan’s Diaries: The Craving Chapter 13
That night I lay in bed, gazing up at the ceiling. The moon shone through the gauzy white curtains, and the house hummed with activity, a melee of footsteps, heartbeats, and mice skittering inside the walls. It felt as though the entire house were alive, with the exception, of course, of myself and Damon. The Sutherlands had no idea, but when they'd opened their home to me, they had invited Death in. I was a cancer on their happy existence, and soon the darkness would spread, eating through their world until there was nothing left. Though I was no willing participant in Damon's twisted plan, it would be no different from how Katherine insinuated herself into my life and decimated the entire Salvatore family. Like it or not, this family's well-being rested squarely on my shoulders. If Damon killed them, their blood would be on my hands, too. But how could I stop him? I was so much weaker than my brother, and I had no plans to begin feeding on humans again for fear that I'd be unable to stop. I rose from bed and pushed the curtains aside with a violent flick. As I stared at the moon, that orb that had witnessed so much of my ill-doing, I replayed the conversation we'd had with Margaret over and over in my head. The firm set of her jaw. The clear tone of her eyes. The way her lucid blue eyes had sized up me and Damon, as though she could see straight through our skin to our unbeating hearts. Winfield was ready to sign his fortune over to Damon, yet his daughter remained immune to my brother's Power. But how? The only protection I knew against vampires was vervain, but I'd not inhaled its cloying scent since arriving in New York. When trying to draw out Katherine, my father had spiked my whiskey with vervain, sending Katherine into a miasmic fit when she drank my blood. If only my father had thought to protect me sooner, he and I might still be in Mystic Falls, poring over accounting books as I studied to take over Veritas. Sliding the window open, I stepped out onto the narrow balcony. The night was eerily still. No wind rustled the trees, and even the pigeons that roosted on the neighbor's roof were quiet. My balcony faced east, toward the muddy East River and the narrow spit of land they called Blackwell's Island, where the city had recently rebuilt the lunatic asylum. A wry smile twisted my lips. If only I could check Damon in there. But then I let out a groan and clutched the wrought-iron rail with my hands. I had to stop wishing and hoping and thinking of millions of if onlys. I could not wish Damon into oblivion and I could not rewrite the past. What was done was done. Even at my peak Power, I could not cause the world to spin backward, could not turn back time and undo what Katherine did to me and my family. But I was not powerless over the future. I had free will, I had experience, and I had the choice to fight. Hoisting myself up on the rail, I leaped to the roof, landing on the tar with a soft thud. New York was a large city, and someone, somewhere, had to grow vervain or at least have dried sprigs. I'd run up and down the streets until I caught the telltale scent of the herb. Spiking Lydia's drinks would be impossible – Damon was feeding from her – but if I could just sprinkle some in Winfield's whiskey†¦ I ran across the roof, preparing to jump to that of the neighbor, before scaling down their fire escape to the street below. â€Å"Where are you going, brother?†The cheery words sliced through the night like gunshot, and I froze on the ledge. Slowly, I turned around to face a smiling Damon. He looked ready for the second part of his evening jaunt, wearing a three-piece suit and twirling a gold cane in his hand. I recognized it immediately – it had belonged to Callie's father, the man who had imprisoned Damon, torturing him and starving him before forcing him to do battle with a mountain lion. Damon must have stolen it after he killed Callie. Unbidden, an image of Callie bloomed in my mind. Her kind green eyes smiling at me, the freckles that dusted every inch of her body, the way she had so bravely given herself to me on the shore of the lake, offering her blood even though she knew what I was and what I could do to her†¦. Her dead, twisted body lying in the grass behind Lexi's house. â€Å"You bastard,†I said in a low, fury-filled voice that I barely recognized as my own. Rage that had been building for weeks with no outlet tore through my veins, and I felt as though my muscles were on fire. With a growl, I threw myself at him. â€Å"Why won't you just let me be?†Our bodies collided, like stone on stone. Startled, Damon fell backward, but instantly he pushed me off and flipped to his feet. He wrapped his arms around my neck with a vise-like grip. â€Å"If you were so desperate to be free of me, you shouldn't have forced me to become a vampire with you,†he hissed, all traces of joviality gone from his demeanor. I struggled to free myself, but his knee pressed more forcefully into my spine, pinning me to the roof. â€Å"You were the one who urged me to become what I am – to see what Katherine gave us as a gift rather than a curse.†â€Å"Trust me,†I gasped, trying to twist from his grip. â€Å"I would take it back if I could.†â€Å"Tsk-tsk,†Damon chided. â€Å"Didn't Father teach you that part of being a man is living with your choices?†He pressed my cheek into the tar roof, scraping open the skin there. â€Å"Then again, you were such a disappointment to him at the end – not wanting to marry Rosalyn, taking up with a vampire, killing him†¦Ã¢â‚¬ â€Å"You were always a disappointment,†I spat. â€Å"I should have killed you when I had the chance.†Damon let out a dry laugh. â€Å"Well, that would have been a shame, because then I couldn't do this.†The pressure on my spine abated as Damon hoisted me up by the back of the shirt. â€Å"What are you – †I started. Before I could finish, Damon launched me forward with the force of a lit cannon. My body careened through the night air, and for a brief, weightless moment, I wondered if I was flying. Then the hard pavement of the alley between the Sutherlands' and their neighbor's home rushed up to greet me, and my bones cracked loudly on the impact. I groaned, pain radiating through my limbs as I rolled to my back, blood dripping down my face. I lay like that for hours, staring at the stars until my Power healed me, resetting my bones and stitching up the gash in my cheek more swiftly than the most skilled medic could. But when I stood, a new pain shot through my chest. Because there on the brick wall of the Sutherlands' home, written in red ink that could only be blood, were three terrifying words: I'm always watching.
Sunday, September 29, 2019
Professional Growth Essay
Developing Ethical Practice Part I            In any industry, business or work, morality is a sensitive issue that needs to be personally and professionally addressed. Individuals have moral convictions as much as companies have their moral values where usually their corporate culture is based. Thus, t is important for companies to look at their moral background as this will influence the moral values of their employees. Equally, employees should share the right moral values for their company and colleagues.            Yet where before professional development revolved around trainings and educational achievements for a person to be able to propel forward in his career, today professional development embodies different aspects of growth. Apart from training, professional development now requires goal setting, research, action plans, improvements, and a never-ending learning process. Each one is a pre-requisite of the other to qualify that a person is really growing professionally and developing in his chosen industry. Moral values are integral aspects of this. (Litke, 1996) Before, planning is a job for firm administrators. They dictate where the company is going, and where the people in it go as well. This exemplifies how the values of a company help shape the individual values of the employees. This has widely changed. Effective planning is now a personal decision of the employees. It is now their prerogative. Thus, moral values have now become an individual choice as well. In effect, these individual ethics make up the ethics in which the company dwells in. (Rennekamp, nd) Education            My educations influenced my ethical upbringing in a variety of ways. Throughout my school years, I had my share of challenges on my moral and ethical values. Specifically, interaction with other students tested my ability to uphold my ethical beliefs. While other students indulge in what can be considered forms of cheating, speaking ill about others, and the likes, I tried my best to avoid doing such. It is undeniable that it is not only once when I experienced such occurrences. There were also times when I failed fighting these temptations. Yet most importantly, those experiences taught me the value of friendship and camaraderieâ€â€when it is right and wrong, honesty, dignity, and strength of values.            Education has been a big part of my ethical development. My formal education and training where starting points on the way I performed and moved through my career. I received my professional certification upon passing the licensure examination of Canada in 1991, the same year after receiving my diploma in Associate Arts in Nursing. Also in the same year I was employed as a clinical nurse for the medical respiratory-cardiac unit of a hospital until 1994. After this assignment I received a position as a critical care nurse in an intensive care unit. Until now, I have been handling this type of job for intensive care units while also holding a position as an e-Nurse. All these roles challenge my morality every day. All of these also create new ethical principles to live by. Yet school was also the one who started on building the foundation for good moral values. Teachers and instructors as well as inspiring mentors who exhibit impressive values and proper ethics in their work and in their classes are the forefront ways in which students like me learned good values. I believe that if students did not learn, then the teachers did not teach. If teachers are able to encourage their students to do and say the right things through deliberate didactic teaching and through practice and good example, then students will have a good moral foundation that they will carry on at work. Luckily, my educational experience provided me this. Work environment At work, moral values are continually put to a test as well. Colleagues who are practicing unethical decisions at work are rampant. Patients and clients may also encourage unethical practices if its end favors them. At these times, the ethics I learned from school, from mentors, and from my colleagues during the times that I was still in school teaches the right thing to do. It takes analysis to decide how to go about the situation, but the bedrock values one learns will always reign. In the few instances when temptation to do the immoral and unethical was too strong, the inspiration of ethical people at work also helps. When there are people in my side approving of the right action that I want to take, it is easier to choose what is right from wrong. In the same way, when more people choose what is wrong, it is harder to indulge on what is right. It takes rooted values to fight these temptations.            As a nurse, though, it is easy to choose the ethical. Varcoe et al. explains that because nurses are moral agents, their practice of ethics and values become more important than with other professions. (Module 4A, page 7) When a nurse knows this, it is harder for him to choose things that are contrary to what values dictate. Being ethical is always the thing to do. This expectation on me as a nurse created a culture of moral, ethical, and virtue-driven focus. Thus, I have instilled in me a deep understanding of the values I have to undertake in my role as a nurse and in setting my priorities in and out of my profession. This created an identity that is unique to me, brought about by the many influences that I receive in my practice. Doane proves this. He states that identity emerges from a series of social relations. Thus, people learn their values by listening or telling stories on how one has been moral or immoral in his actions. (Module 4A, page 8, 10) Doanne states that nurses are relational and narrative beings. Thus, nurses often learn from other people and from outside sources such as literature. He suggests that nurses should pay attention to the relationships that they maintain, the conflicts that they encounter, the feelings that they develop towards every event that they go into, and the values that they engage or disengage in. In their way they develop their role as nurses and become ready for bigger challenges in their practice. They are also encouraged to narrate their experiences to others as it will bring them forward as moral agents. (Module 4A, page 12) I have proven these true. In fact, many of my values which I learned from work were based on the ethical principles of other people. They were mentors, colleagues, and patients who have shared their stories on how they fought the unethical and upheld their principles. As much as they inspired me and my other colleagues, they also strengthened the values that we already learned in school. They gave the reassurance that doing the right thing is the right thing. Self-reflection Maintaining good values was also brought about by reflection. Just the same, self-awareness and self-definition became possible through reflection. Reflecting on everyday activities at work are good indications of one’s work values and attitudes. It will also help if a person will be able to watch or listen to recordings of own work performance which will harness an identification of faultsâ€â€of strong and weak pointsâ€â€where improvements will be available. This is also how I was able to gauge my performance at work and how I enhanced my skills. (Continuous assessment and professional growth, nd) According to Rennekamp (nd), professional development has several stages. In all these stages there are values inherent to an employee. There is the entry stage, the period when the employee is new to his industry and is still developing the faculties that he needs to sharpen and use in his job. Much of the ethics in this stage come from the school and the family. The second stage is the colleague stage. This is the point when the entry-level employee has mastered his surroundings and the scope of his job. At this stage the employee is an active part of the problem-solving team and no longer the passive listener or follower. He has also found his way around several ethical standards in the company which he may have adapted. (Rennekamp, nd)            After the colleague stage is the counselor role. Here, the employee takes on a new role as a mentor to others. Leadership roles are prevalent at this stage. Apart from their regular assignments, employees in the counselor stage may take on additional tasks in leading others. They are now sharing their values to others. (Rennekamp, nd)            Finally, there is the advisor stage. In this stage the employee is no longer just an employee but an essential part in strategic planning of organizations. The employee in the advisor stage is more influential and is now a holder of more responsibilities. He also sets standards of practice rather than just encouraging others to do them. (Rennekamp, nd).            Currently, I would presume that I am in the counselor role. I have mastered my job as a critical care nurse and have created networks. I have also established myself as a nurse and have been helping others achieve as well. However, I am in the colleague stage of my e-Nursing and nursing informatics career. I have just entered this role, but I now have taken leadership roles. Despite this difference in my stages in the two job matrices that I am in, I am in the counsellor stage of my moral and ethical life at work. I learn principles every day and teach them as much to others. Conclusion            There are many factors in which ones moral values are founded. Doane claims that moral identity comes from layers of influences, including the self, others, and the culture or environment in which one is in. Socialization empowers morals and ethics as much as they may disempower them. It is important for a person to have the freedom to choose how he wants to decide about a situation. Ethics cannot be practiced by mechanically teaching employees how to act, speak, or think. It takes proper integration of ethical principles and living by example to enable ethical values to be learned. (Module 4A, page 10)            Overall, ethics is an important part of work in any industry. Where there is no ethics, proper social relations is impossible. It is inevitable to be in situations calling for the unethical practices to be made. However, if the ethical is feasible, then it shall be made. Part II            Ethics is often tested at work. There was a time when a patient who was terminally ill and was diagnosed to have just several days more to live consulted me if she should seek medical intervention for giving her earlier death. She was not in any pain only because she was practically living on pain killers. Despite her medical insurance, she also cannot sustain the monetary requirements of her illness.            The family feels otherwise. They know that every centavo that they are spending is worth it. They are confident that she will survive. She has not told them about her thoughts.            I am personally against euthanasia. Even though there are instances and occasions when it is needed, I prefer the natural way for death. It was painful to hear a patient decide that way. It was not surprising, though. Before the conversation, she has always been complaining about her medicines, her family, her illness, her life, and her finances. She was sharing that her family wants her gone. She wanted to end the pain and the pain killers. I was not able to help but share this conviction with my patient. I told her that first, she is not in real pain and that even though her pain is only subsided because of pain killers, it should give her hopes of living; secondly, I shared her several things about life that can encourage her to go on. I told her, despite the onset of her disbelief, that there is a right time for everything. I left her room, and I know that she is dismayed.            The patient lived for almost another year. She even managed to be discharged from the hospital. After our conversation, the topic was never raised again. The family never knew about that conversation, nor did the other nurses I was working with. Yet I felt that the attending physician had to know, and so I told him, and to my relief he shared my convictions. He likewise helped the patient recover from the psychological turmoil that was pushing her to the edge. In the end, the patient proved herself wrong. Becoming a moral agent            The patient’s story impacted my values a lot. When I heard that she died, I felt sad but victorious that I did what I and the physician thought was the right thing. I became a catalyst of her change of mind and heart. I knew I did the right thing because she outlived the deadline that was given to her life by the doctors. Whether she realized that we made the right thing or not did not matter anymore. The heart of the matter is that I was able to win over this morally distressing situation and get out of it the right way.            I was a moral agent, and my moral agency stressed on me that the right thing to do is allow her to live some more. It was my duty to prolong others’ life as much as I could. It would have been an exactly different feeling if I decided otherwise, against my moral principles. Nursing, I subscribe, is a job that entails moral responsibilities. Lessons learned After this situation, I became extra sensitive to the psychological and emotional needs of the patients especially those with terminal cases. I read about positive psychology and shared my learning to other nurses. I was also able to magnify cues that may lead to the same situation as well. When I identify them, such as when the patient is verbalizing thoughts that the family wants her gone or that she should not be living anymore, I try to console her and share my thoughts on life and her health. There are times when the patient will lash out on me with disagreement, but this does not make me bend my convictions. I stayed on believing, because of that patient who survived, that when I make the right choices the right things will happen. In the process, my ethics and morality is also nurtured. Raines assert that there are four antecedents to the occurrence of a moral agency. First is the modeling. In the situation, the patient showed signs of discontent and giving up. She was practically moving away from all other choices but death. Secondly there is the coming of the ethical dilemma. This was when the patient verbalized what she really wanted, which was to cheat on death by ending it earlier. The third stage, the alternatives, caught me in the situation. I was torn between the choice of the patient and my personal ethics; my beliefs or the patient’s beliefs. (Module 4A, page 15) Lastly, my decision was based on information. I gathered all the facts that I have instilled in me to be able to encourage the patient to live longer and have hope. I believe that all these four antecedents take integral roles in accomplishing an act of moral agency. A moral agent cannot be so if there is no ethical dilemma at hand, posed by modeling of the impending dilemma. Alternatives and information, likewise enabled the solution of the dilemma, thus were equally important. (Module 4A, page 15) It is likewise important to have alternatives. Raines assert that nurses should consider that there are always alternatives to a situation. This will put them off the pressure to being gullible followers of a single choice which may not be right. In doing so, ethical values may be put in jeopardy. Gathering and giving information, as well, is important. (Module 4A, page 15) Other factors Communication is another important skill in this. I should still try to learn more about communication processes and skills. Growth can be enhanced by being updated with new policies and guidelines in the skills being developed and the work itself. (Continuous assessment and professional growth, nd) I can do this by attending trainings about effective communication skills, effective listening, and customer support. This does not only benefit my communication with patients and their caregivers, it will also give me the ability to communicate with the other members of my team more effectively which in effect will give me more chances to deliver better and ethics-based patient care in behalf of the company, my team, and myself.            Ethics and values should be part of the highly complex goal-setting strategy of a person. They are as important as any other aims. Interestingly, Cooper (nd) states that 87% of people do not have goals. These people were found to have difficulties coping with the demands of their jobs. They also found it difficult to excel in their fields. In the contrary, 3% of people have clearly defined goals which are written down. These people were found to be achievers, accomplishing their goals and developing in their careers at 50 to 100 percent of the time. While it is not a requirement, employees should write down their ethical and moral resolutions and read them a couple of times periodically. This will instill in them these resolutions. Through all this process of planning, Rennekamp (nd) instills that flexibility is an important element. While being focused on goals and achievements is important, preparations for unexpected events should be considered. In my personal practice, for instance, I usually encounter many dilemmas that challenge my values. It is hard to please everybody, and the moral thing is not always the good thing to do. There will be times when the unethical may bring the good for the more number of people, and it can be sometimes the right choice. References BCIT Document, Specialty Nursing. 2007. Developing ethical practice. Module 4A.  BCIT Document, Specialty Nursing. 2007. Developing ethical practice. Module 5.  Continuous assessment and professional growth. nd. Retrieved November 4, 2007, from http://www.wested.org/online_pubs/Chapter6.Carlson-Final-Pdf-4.pdf Cooper, T. nd. An action plan for growth and success. Retrieved November 4, 2007, from http://teachersnetwork.org/NTNY/nychelp/Professional_Development/growth.htm Litke, C. 1996. Professional growth in changing times: challenges and choices. Retrieved November 4, 2007, from http://www.ucalgary.ca/~cll/resources/litke.html Rennekamp, R. nd. Professional growth: a guide for professional development. Retrieved November 4, 2007, from http://www.ca.uky.edu/agpsd/stages.htm
Saturday, September 28, 2019
External factors upon the activities of a business Essay
Introduction In this assignment, I will describe how external factors (political, legal, and social) are impacting upon the activities of a business. My chosen business is McDonalds and I will be explaining how the issues affect in both UK and India. McDonalds – is the world’s largest chain of fast food restaurants. They mainly serve hamburgers, cheeseburgers, chicken products, French fries, breakfast items, soft drinks, milkshakes and desserts. They also have options such as salads, apples, milk, and Snack Wraps on the menu. Legal Factors These are the laws and regulations affecting the business. Some of the other factors may include: freedom of information, data protection, employment law and copyright etc. UK and India’s Legal Factors Health and safety – In the UK and India, the health and safety law is very important for each individual or employees especially in the workplace, to prevent injury, death and illness. This affects some businesses especially in India because they need to have all equipment for health and safety which will cost them a lot to fill it up. Food Hygiene – In both countries, McDonalds has to be very hygienic in order for the business to stay open and successful. The impact of an unhygienic restaurant would be catastrophic for the company’s image. Recruitment and Selection Law – All workers must be treated equally. For example In UK, you cannot dismiss a worker for being pregnant. There should be proper warning before dismissing a worker otherwise it will be treated as unfair dismissal. The Government makes it mandatory to have a written contract of employment. It contains the details of the wage rate; working hours, and other necessary details regarding working conditions. The National Minimum Wage in UK is currently  £6.31 while in India; the minimum wage is 118 rupees per day or about  £1.50 which is very low compare to UK. In contrast to the UK, India can employ individuals aged fewer than 16 and the child labour in India has a poor image as children are often left unpaid. Social Factors These are the aspects of population like for example; immigration, age of population, taste and fashion, belief, individual’s personality, attitudes and lifestyle. UK Social Factors Immigration – This has negative impact upon the social factors in UK. A long time ago, there wasn’t that many people living in the UK, however, in the 21st century, a lot of people from different part of the world started to migrate and live in UK. The major impact is on population. It has an advantage such as a lot of people are skilled to be employed in the business. However, some migrants might be illegal entrants or maybe visa over stayers. Ageing Population – The demographics in UK illustrate that the numbers of older people are increasing. McDonalds can benefit from this ageing population as they can increase the range of their hot drink products in order to target and meet the needs of older people. McDonalds can sell more healthy products such as fruits and salads. Lifestyle – Businesses are always affected by the lifestyle as people have different fashions, tastes, ethics, beliefs etc. As UK is a multi-cultural country, McDonalds needs to provide different selections of foods from different cultures such as in India McDonalds do not sell any beef products as it is prohibited in their religion. India Social Factors High population growth – In India, due to high population, people have a hard time to find a job, as a result of this people don’t have enough funding for their daily expenses. High degree of corruption level – Corruption is a major issue that adversely affects its economy in India. The causes of corruption in India include excessive regulations, complicated taxes and licensing systems so they add extra cost to the business. Bollywood popularity – Bollywood is the nickname for the Indian film industry. It became very popular as Indians are in love with movies. Political Factors Political factors are factors that deal with the public. For example; EU membership, taxation government support for business, infrastructure (roads), skills, business ethics (corruption). UK Political Factors EU membership – McDonalds will need to act in accordance to the European regulations. One of the regulations is the working hours where workers must only work for no more than 48 hours. Taxation – McDonalds is affected by the government taxes, such as income taxes and business rates as it is a large business, meaning that a lot of tax is taken away from their profits. And McDonalds will have to pay tax. Tax has an impact on McDonalds as it will be taken off their annual profit which will result in less diligence for shareholders. India Political Factors Infrastructure – India isn’t modernized unlike UK; the technology systems are much less advanced which could affect the business ability to produce, to sell, expand, and demand. The roads are not well established. And if McDonalds in India have poor machinery, poor buildings and facilities, then it won’t benefit the business and won’t be able to expand.
Friday, September 27, 2019
Crimes and Punishments in Saudi Arabia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words
Crimes and Punishments in Saudi Arabia - Essay Example To the Muslim world, Koran is cleanly a charter of the nation and recommends principles for legitimate verdict. Decision making and law making authority are practiced by the king and the council of ministers. Nonetheless, their ruling is determined by the Shari'a edict. All the other regulations are dependable to the king. In Saudi Arabia, the statutes of edict subscribe to stringent Islamic ideals. Islam as a terminology stands for "submission to God's self-control. The most towering Islamic theory is Shari'a otherwise known as a pathway; the totality of continuation as ordained by God. Every person pledging allegiance to the Islamic faith ought to carry themselves out by observing mores as established by Mohammed, who was conceived as God's prophet. Mohammed lived from 570 - 632 A.D. To most scholars, especially those from the west it's quite intricate for them to comprehend the Muslim surrender to the decrees as exemplified by Koran in their very undertaking. The edict of the land in Saudi Arabia is simply the Koran in connection to mores established by Mohammed. Shari'a is manifested in four major sources. This is documented in thousand religious verses exposed by God via Mohammed the prophet; however, from impeccable sources Sunna which represents the culture of the prophet addressed has not been documented in the Koran. Ijma known as the perceptions of the ulema as well as religious scholars and Qiyas have been channels through which jurists agree upon new authorized ideology. Saudi King is not indispensable from the decrees constructed by the Shari'a. The Saudi court is intricate, although when a verdict is requested, it is envisaged by the courtyard of petitions. The court normally has 3 members, an increase that leads to 5 members' alarms for the imposition of death or disfigurement. The ultimate authority comes from the king, who doles out as a final court of appeal and also as a source of pardon. Felonies are categorized into 3 subcategories: Hudud, Tazir and Qisas. Crimes that are prohibited by the most high god include; Hudud. Reprimanding such felonies is subject to biblical verses from the Koran. Felonies connected to Tazir are offered an appropriate clout to mete out the judgment, whereas felonies involving Qisas grant a culprit the right for retaliation. Hudud Felonies Crimes associated to Hudud include robbery, alcoholism, slander of Islam, fornication, deceitfulness. Fines, incarceration and limb cut off have been a recompense for persons found stilling. Individuals found culpable of consumption, advertising as well as retailing alcohol and inhaling of drugs, are punished by a sentence of eighty strokes of the cane. Tazir felon Felonies of Tazir are analogous to transgression felonies in America. No stipulated, but each persons is judged on a personal level with response to the severity of the crime and the remorse exhibited by the hoodlum. Qisas felony If someone is found culpable of felonies against a culprit or his folks, the hard done by family have the say-so to retaliate. The verdict is decided in clandestine by the family and the authentic chastisement is carried out in hush-hush. In the event where man slaughter has taken place, the aggrieved has the say so to execute the victim analogous to the same approach their loved one was murdered or in any system they prefer. In the event where
Thursday, September 26, 2019
How can computer science help students in school Essay
How can computer science help students in school - Essay Example This sequence must be unambiguous and detailed. It is practiced by engineers, scientists and mathematicians. Through engineering, the building of hardware and software is achieved, while reason and logic are provided through mathematics. It has a strong connection to other specialties like software systems, computer architecture, software engineering, graphics and even artificial intelligence. As such, each of these specialties, having been drawn from Computer Science would mainly focus on particular challenges, and the application and understanding of basically all aspects of Computer Science. Research by the Sheehy shows that only about 21,000 high schools out of about 42,000 public and private high schools in America offered Advanced Placement test in Computer Science in 2011, a 25 per cent drop in the last 5 years. Only 9 states allow Computer Science as a satisfaction to core science or math requirements. Computer Science is considered as a math or science in 41 states. Some of the most influential people in the world like Bill Gates and Steve Jobs all had one thing in common; they all learned Computer Science in high school. ... Thus, computers have become necessary companions to students in various fields to understand the world around them. As Bentley puts it, â€Å"computers are our invisible helpers†(5). Science students use computer-based equipment to make the required observations and to determine the needed facts. For instance, Biologists use it to determine the genetics of given samples. Chemists use it to determine the concentration of chemicals in various samples. Thus, Computer Science provides the capability for students to understand their academic world. Secondly, Computer Science provides the capability of interacting with other students and peers around the world. The Internet gives computers the ability of being tools of communication across the world. Online versions of print publications are always available on the Internet because of the capabilities provided by Computer Science (Straubhaar, LaRose, and Davenport 263). A huge amount of information is stored on the Internet and is always available to the user. An online version of a newspaper will contain a blog section, where readers can contribute their views by leaving their comments, additional links to other sites with related news, multimedia extensions, online forums, and even audio and video files. Academically, they could access information on the advancements in research studies so as to determine the existing knowledge gap. Thus way, students would be able to carry out relevant research studies that would greatly contribute to the existing body of knowledge. Students could use this capability to interact with people from various parts of the world and get to understand what happens in other parts of the world, be it academic or otherwise. Of importance with regards
Organisational behavior Case Study and Analysis Essay
Organisational behavior Case Study and Analysis - Essay Example Aiken, equipped with a 30 years experience of working in management culture, disapproved the former CEO’s loose organizational structure as he replaced him and began to quantify every aspect of employees’ performance. The employees got irritated. Within 3 years, Aiken was fired because of dangerously high employee turnout rate. Meryl Francoli, the third CEO introduced the Output Matters Environment (OME) touchy feely system that provides employees with all the flexibility they have been longing to get for 3 years, though Francoli initially decides to implement the system in just 3 units, namely the Extended Warranty unit, logistics unit and a store in Victoria. This has raised controversies among various employees. A vast majority of employees disapprove the new CEO’s idea, and expose Franklin to new challenges of gaining employee satisfaction. Franklin needs to defend her decision, estimate its long term effects on the organizational culture, assess ways to impl ement it widely and make the process effective. Problem: Problem is the identification of nail head to hit upon. Aiken and Francoli have been sincere in their efforts of modifying the organizational culture. ... On the other hand, Francoli has been criticized heavily for her decision of implementing the OME system in just three units. Taking into consideration the number of employees and managers who have criticized her, it can be estimated that her decision is going to create more tension than ease, though the true picture can only be defined with time. Aiken directed his efforts at increasing workers’ productivity but ended up increasing their turnover rate whereas Francoli directed her efforts at decreasing workers’ turnover rate but is quite like to end up decreasing their productivity. Something needs to be done that would increase their productivity while decreasing the employee turnover rate. That is the nail head that Francoli needs to find and hit upon to solve the problem. This is exactly the problem, which, if solved, will make the other issues go away. Analysis: CEOs are not identifying employees’ needs. They need to understand that they need to mould their p olicies according to the demands of employees. They can not expect employees to act according to their decisions without winning their confidence. The problem is fundamentally occurring because the CEOs have been implementing their decisions without checking their suitability to the needs of employees who have remained part of the organization for a long time and have been following different policies in different times. There are certain factors that are fundamentally the drivers of employees’ performance that include but are not limited to money, reward, appreciation, security and health benefits. All of these factors mutually function to develop job satisfaction in
Wednesday, September 25, 2019
Concert Report of Gentleman's Rule Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
Concert Report of Gentleman's Rule - Essay Example Because the program was organized in the evening, lighting was an important and integral part. There was sufficient lighting to make everything visible. The lighting system was also used as a decorative system as there were combination of different forms and types of lights in different switches and rhythms so synchronize with the music that was being done. Again, because there was a conscious effort to ensuring that fans and all other stakeholders within the premises of the theatre did not have problem with visuals, there was create visibility with the lighting system that was provided. It was the stage itself that did not have much light due to technical reasons such as concentrating the light only on people of whom the technical themes wanted attention to go to at a point in time. On the issue of ease of movement by patrons of the concert, particularly the fans, it would be said that even though the Royal George Theatre is a very sizeable place, for some reasons, it could not guar antee patrons of the program much movement. The problem was not due to that natural size of the auditorium but due to the fact that the songs that were done where danceable tunes, of which most fans wanted more and more space to shake themselves off with the music. Accessibility for people with disability would however be approached with a different tone noting that so much room was made for these people to have accessibility. There was actually a whole floor on the storey row that was preserved for people with disability. This was a step in the right direction as this floor was well fitted with accessible gadgets for the people with disability. Sound levels were perfect from a technical view point as organizers and the sound theme ensured that there was perfect harmony in the production and release of sound. There was virtually no instrument in the room, whose sound level was swallowed by the other and this contributed to the harmony in sound production and sound levels (Graves et al, 2002). But as expected, the voices of the fans swallowed the sound from the stage on some occasions, especially in cases where well known tunes were being played. In sum, it would be said that the venue of the concert was very comfortable in terms of sound and lighting but not so much comfortable for people who really were bent on using their dancing shows to the fullest. This is because the concert was organized to take a more diplomatic form whereby the fans would be passive rather than active participants. Performers The main performers for the show were the Gentleman’s Rule. These are a group of young and talented ten (10) male singers and composers (Gardner, 2006). The area of specialization of these singers is mainly acapella. On stage that night, the clothing of all 10 was something that deserves commendation. This is because the clothing was designed to give unique identities to these performers. For example they were dressed according to their vocal roles in the group with the led singer having what has come to be known as the Michael Jackson hand band. Light skinned clothes that would not make them produce so much sweat. The shirts were short sleeved to allow for aeration and the trousers were certainly made of cotton to absorb liquid well. The actions performed by the singers on stage often changed with the mode of the song being delivered. But the organization of the songs was done so well that
Tuesday, September 24, 2019
Policy in Lundy Marine Nature Reserve Yields Positive Results Article
Policy in Lundy Marine Nature Reserve Yields Positive Results - Article Example It is administered by the Torridge district of the county of Devon. It has a total area of 4.24 km2 and has a resident population of 18 people located at the south of the island. The island was leased by the National Trust to the Landmark Trust. It was named as the 10th greatest natural wonder in Britain by the 2005 opinion poll of Radio Times (wikipedia, 2006). Due to the development of the aqualung, Lundy's incredibly diverse marine plants and animals were discovered. The array includes rare and unusual species such as the solitary cup corals, sea fans and sponges. An explanation offered for the diversity is the variety of underwater habitats in its seabed. The variety in shelter coupled with the also varied water current conditions present in the area gave opportunities for a wider variety of species that can inhabit the waters of the island. (Lundy Org, 2006) This discovery served as the stimulant for legislation aimed at protecting the area. It started with a 1971 proposal by the Lundy Field Society to establish a marine reserve and finalized with the 1986 announcement of the then Secretary of State for the Environment designating Lundy as a statutory reserve. Lundy is England's only statutory Marine Nature Reserve. The reserve is managed in partnership by English Nature, the Environment Agency, Devon Sea Fisheries Committee (DSFC), the National Trust and ... A warden is employed by the Landmark Trust for the oversight of the reserve. (ENO, 2004) Policies The Marine Nature Reserve employs a zoning scheme and is illustrated below (Lundy Org, 2006): Zones within the Marine Nature Reserve: The Red Area is the No-Take Zone The Yellow Area is the Refuge Zone: no fishing except potting or angling. The Green Area is the Recreational Zone: restrictions the same for the Refuge Zone (yellow) but be aware of other water users The Black Circles indicate legally Protected Wrecks : no diving or fishing without a license from English Heritage is allowed The Blue Area covers the rest of the Marine Nature Reserve and is the General Use Zone: all activities allowed except spear fishing. A prominent feature of the zoning scheme is the NO TAKE ZONE (NTZ). This zone employs the policy of prohibiting fishing and even collection of any kind of sea life in the waters east of Lundy. The implementation of this policy is ensured by the DSFC as it is incorporated in their by-law. The NTZ has coordinates north to Lat 51 12.04N, south to Lat 51 10.07N and east from Lundy's shores to Long 004 39.00W. Anchors and diver shot lines within 100m of the Knoll Pins is also prohibited in this zone. The No Take Zone was predicted to be able to enhance populations of fish and shellfish stocks within and outside the closed area by establishing a refuge for fish and shellfish stocks. Greater catches of fish for fishermen around the edges of the closed area was also seen as probable. The island's tourism industry was also seen as a direct beneficiary of the project. The reserve employs the following system (Lundy Org, 2006): Since underwater wildlife
Monday, September 23, 2019
Nursing research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 15
Nursing research - Essay Example Secondly, a researcher can establish criterion validity by measuring the tool against itself. In this case, a researcher can establish the criterion-based validity by investigating the way that the tool will be able to predict measures in the future. There are four forms of reliability. Among these four forms of reliability is internal consistency reliability, which investigates the level to which disparate instruments that are investigating the same phenomenon produced results that were different. Consequently, this form of reliability is further divided into two sub-types with one of the sub-types known as split-half reliability. As the name suggests, spilt-half reliability is achieved through splitting into two halves the items in a test whose intention is to establish an investigation in the same area of knowledge. In effect, this forms two sets of items that will undergo testing in order to establish the reliability of the tool. In this case, the two sets of items undergo the testing with similar tools with their scores then computed, and the researcher finally obtains the split-half reliability by a correlative determination of the ‘set’ scores between this set of
Sunday, September 22, 2019
Training and Development of Employees Essay Example for Free
Training and Development of Employees Essay Objectives of the Project Report Training and Development of Employees Finding is the main objective of this project report and some of the sub-objective in this report. They are : * To know the effectiveness of the training programme conducted by the company. * To know whether employees are aware about their responsibilities and authorities or not. * To improve Organizational Climate and increase the morale of employees. * To know whether training programme is conducted successfully or not. * To know about the work culture of the organization. Training and Development of Employees : Training and Development of Employees : After employees have been selected for various positions in an organization, training them for the specific tasks to which they have been assigned assumes great importance. It is true in many organizations that before an employee is fitted into a harmonious working relationship with other employees, he is given adequate training. Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for performing a particular job. The major outcome of training is learning. A trainee learns new habits, refined skills and useful knowledge during the training that helps him improve performance. Training enables an employee to do his present job more efficiently and prepare himself for a higher-level job. The essential features of training may be stated thus: * Increases knowledge and skills for doing a particular job; it bridges the gap between job needs and employee skills, knowledge and behaviors * Focuses attention on the current job; it is job specific and addresses particular performance deficits or problems * Concentrates on individual employees; changing what employees know, how they work, their attitudes toward their work or their interactions with their co-workers or supervisors * Tends to be more narrowly focused and oriented toward short-term performance concerns. Training is needed to serve the following purposes: * Newly recruited employees require training so as to perform their tasks effectively. Instruction, guidance, coaching help them to handle jobs competently, without any wastage. * Training is necessary to prepare existing employees for higher-level jobs (promotion). * Existing employees require refresher training so as to keep abreast of the latest developments in job operations. In the face of rapid technological changes, this is an absolute necessity. * Training is necessary when a person moves from one job to another (transfer). After training, the employee can change jobs quickly, improve his performance levels and achieve career goals comfortably * Training is necessary to make employees mobile and versatile. They can be placed on various jobs depending on organizational needs. * Training is needed to bridge the gap between what the employee has and what the job demands. * Training is needed to make employees more productive and useful in the long-run. * Training is needed for employees to gain acceptance from peers (learning a job quickly and being able to pull their own weight is one of the best ways for them to gain acceptance). Importance of Training : * Training offers innumerable benefits to both employees and employers. It makes the employee more productive and more useful to an organization. The importance of training can be studied under the following heads: Benefits to the business: * Trained workers can work more efficiently. They use machines, tools, and materials in a proper way. Wastage is thus eliminated to a large extent. * There will be fewer accidents. Training improves the knowledge of employees regarding the use of machines and equipment. Hence, trained workers need not be put under close supervision, as they know how to handle operations properly. * Trained workers can show superior performance. They can turn out better performance. They can turn out better quality goods by putting the materials, tools and equipment to good use. * Training makes employees more loyal to an organization. They will be less inclined to leave the unit where there are growth opportunities Benefits to the employees: * Training makes an employee more useful to a firm. Hence, he will find employment more easily. * Training makes employees more efficient and effective. By combining materials, tools and equipment in a right way, they can produce more with minimum effort. * Training enables employees to secure promotions easily. They can realise their career goals comfortably. * Training helps an employee to move from one organization to another easily. He can be more mobile and pursue career goals actively. * Employees can avoid mistakes, accidents on the job. They can handle jobs with confidence. They will be more satisfied on their jobs. Their morale would be high. Thus, training can contribute to higher production, fewer mistakes, greater job satisfaction and lower labour turnover. Also, it can enable employees to cope with organizational, social and technological change. Effective training is an invaluable investment in the human resources of an organization. Learning Principles: The Philosophy of Training Training is essential for job success. It can lead to higher production, fewer mistakes, greater job satisfaction and lower turnover. These benefits accrue to both the trainee and the organization, if managers understand the principles behind the training process. To this end, training efforts must invariably follow certain learning-oriented guidelines. Modelling Modeling is simply copying someone elses behavior. Passive classroom learning does not leave any room for modeling. If we want to change people, it would be a good idea to have videotapes of people showing the desired behavior. The selected model should provide the right kind of behavior to be copied by others. A great deal of human behaviour is learned by modelling others. Children learn by modelling parents and older children, they are quite comfortable with the process by the time they grow up. As experts put it. managers tend to manage as they were managed Motivation For learning to take place, intention to learn is important. When the employee is motivated, he pays attention to what is being said, done and presented. Motivation to learn is influenced by the answers to questions such as: How important is my job to me? How important is the information? Will learning help me progress in the company? etc. People learn more quickly when the material is important and relevant to them. Learning is usually quicker and long-lasting when the learner participates actively. Most people, for example, never forget how to ride a bicycle because they took an active part in the learning process. Reinforcement Positive reinforcement consists of rewarding desired behaviors. If a behavior is rewarded, it probably will be repeated. People avoid certain behaviors that invite criticism and punishment. A bank officer would want to do a postgraduate course in finance, if it earns him increments and makes him eligible for further promotions. Both the external rewards (investments, praise) and the internal rewards (a feeling of pride and achievement) associated with desired behaviors compel subjects to learn properly. To be effective, the trainer must reward desired behaviors only. If he rewards poor performance, the results may be disastrous: good performers may quit in frustration, accidents may go up, and productivity may suffer. The reinforcement principle is also based on the premise that punishment is less effective in learning than reward. Punishment is a pointer to undesirable behaviors. When administered, it causes pain to the employee. He mayor may not repeat the mistakes. The reactions m ay be mild or wild. Action taken to repeal a person from undesirable action is punishment. If administered properly, punishment may force the trainee to modify the undesired or incorrect behaviors. Feedback People learn best if reinforcement is given as soon as possible after training. Every employee wants to know what is expected of him and how well he is doing. If he is off the track, somebody must put him back on the rails. The errors in such cases must be rectified immediately. The trainee after learning the right behaviour is motivated to do things in a right way and earn the associated rewards. Positive feedback (showing the trainee the right way of doing things) is to be preferred to negative feedback (telling the trainee that he is not correct) when we want to change behaviour. Spaced Practice Learning takes place easily if the practice sessions are spread over a period of time. New employees learn better if the orientation programme is spread over a two or three day period, instead of covering it all in one day. For memorizing tasks, massed practice is usually more effective. Imagine the way schools ask the kids to say the Lords prayer aloud. Can you memorise a long poem by learning only one line per day? You tend to forget the beginning of the poem by the time you reach the last stanza. For acquiring skills as stated by Mathis and Jackson, spaced practice is usually the best. This incremental approach to skill acquisition minimises the physical fatigue that deters learning. Whole Learning The concept of whole learning suggests that employees learn better if the job information is explained as an entire logical process, so that they can see how the various actions fit together into the big picture. A broad overview of what the trainee would be doing on the job should be given top priority, if learning has to take place quickly. Research studies have also indicated that it is more efficient to practice a whole task all at once rather than trying to master the various components of the task at different intervals. Active Practice Practice makes a man perfect: so said Bacon. To be a swimmer, you should plunge into water instead of simply reading about swimming or looking at films of the worlds best swimmers. Learning is enhanced when trainees are provided ample opportunities to repeat the task. For maximum benefit, practice sessions should be distributed over time. Applicability of Training Training should be as real as possible so that trainees can successfully transfer the new knowledge to their jobs. The training situations should be set up so that trainees can visualise and identify with the types of situations they can come across on the job. Environment Finally, environment plays a major role in training. It is natural that workers who are exposed to training in comfortable environments with adequate, well spaced rest periods are more likely to learn than employees whose training conditions are less than ideal. Generally speaking, learning is very fast at the beginning. Thereafter, the pace of learning slows down as opportunities for improvement taper off. Areas of Training The Areas of Training in which training is offered may be classified into the following categories. Knowledge Here the trainee learns about a set of rules and regulations about the job, the staff and the products or services offered by the company. The aim is to make the new employee fully aware of what goes on inside and outside the company. Technical Skills The employee is taught a specific skill (e.g., operating a machine, handling computer etc.) so that he can acquire that skill and contribute meaningfully. Social Skills The employee is made to learn about himself and others, and to develop a right mental attitude towards the job, colleagues and the company. The principal focus is on teaching the employee how to be a team member and get ahead . Techniques This involves the application of knowledge and skill to various on-the-job situations. In addition to improving the skills and knowledge of employees, training aims at moulding employee attitudes: When administered properly, a training programme will go a long way in obt8ining employee loyalty, support and commitment to company activities. Types of Training There are many approaches to training. We focus here on the types of training that are commonly employed in present-day organisations. Skills training: Skill training is most common in organisations. The process here is fairly simple. The need for training in basic skills (such as reading, writing, computing, speaking, listening, problem solving, managing oneself, knowing how to learn, working as part of a team, leading others) is identified through assessment. Specific training objectives are set and training content is developed to meet those objectives. Several methods are available for imparting these basic skills in modern organisations (such as lectures, apprenticeship, on-the-job, coaching etc.). Before employing these methods, managers should: * explain how the training will help the trainees in their jobs. * relate the training to the trainees goals. * respect and consider participant responses and use these as a resource. * encourage trainees to learn by doing. Â * give feedback on progress toward meeting learning objectives. Refresher training: Rapid changes in technology may force companies to go in for this kind of training. By organising short-term courses which incorporate the latest developments in a particular field, the company may keep its employees up-to-date and ready to take on emerging challenges. * It is conducted at regular intervals by taking the help of outside consultants who specialise in a particular descriptive. Cross-functional Training: Cross-functional Training involves training employees to perform operations in areas other than their assigned job. There are many approaches to cross functional training. Job rotation can be used to provide a manager in one functional area with a broader perspective than he would otherwise have. Departments can exchange personnel for a certain period so that each employee understands how other departments are functioning. High performing workers can act as peer trainers and help employees develop skills in another area of operation. Cross functional training provides the following benefits to an organisation (and the workers as well) (1) Workers gain rich experience in handling diverse jobs; they become more adaptable and versatile (2) they can better engineer their own career paths (3) they not only know their job well but also understand how others are able to perform under a different set of constraints (4) A broader perspective increases workers understanding of the business and reduces the need for supervision (5) when workers can fill in for other workers who are absent, it is easier to use flexible scheduling, which is increasingly in demand as more employees want to spend more time with their families. Eli Lilly and Company (India), for example, encourages cross-functional movements to make the organisation equally attractive to both specialists and generalists. Team Training: Team training generally covers two areas; content tasks and group processes. Content tasks specify the teams goals such as cost control and problem solving. Group processes reflect the way members function as a team for example how they interact with each other, how they sort out differences, how they participate etc. Companies are investing heavy amounts, nowadays, in training new employees to listen to each other and to cooperate. They are using outdoor experiential training techniques to develop teamwork and team spirit among their employees (such as scaling a mountain, preparing recipes for colleagues at a restaurant, sailing through uncharted waters, crossing a jungle etc.). The training basically throws light on (i) how members should communicate with each other (ii) how they have to cooperate and get ahead (iii) how they should deal with conflict-full situations (iv) how they should find their way, using collective wisdom and experience to good advantage. Creativity training: Companies like Mudra Communications, Titan Industries, Wipro encourage their employees to think unconventionally, break the rules, take risks, go out of the box and devise unexpected solutions. * Postpone judgment: Dont reject any idea * Create alternative frames of reference * Break the boundary of thinking * Examine a different aspect of the problem * Make a wish list of solutions * Borrow ideas from other fields * Look for processes to change or eliminate * Think up alternative methods * Adopt another persons perspective * Question all Assumptions. In creativity training, trainers often focus on three things: (a) Breaking away: In order to break away from restrictions, the trainee is expected to (i) identify the dominant ideas influencing his own thinking (ii) define the boundaries within which he is working (iii) bring the assumptions out into the open and challenge everything (b) Generate new ideas: To generate new ideas, the trainee should open up his mind; look at the problem from all possible angles and list as many alternative approaches as possible. The trainee should allow his mind to wander over alternatives freely. Expose himself to new influences (people, articles, books, situations), switch over from one perspective to another, -arrange cross fertilization of ideas with other people and use analogies to spark off ideas. (c) Delaying judgement: To promote creative thinking, the trainee should not try to kill off ideas too quickly; they should be held back until he is able to generate as many ideas as possible. He should allow ideas to grow a little. Brainstorming (getting a large number of ideas from a group of people in a short time) often helps in generating as many ideas as possible without pausing to evaluate them. It helps in releasing ideas, overcoming inhibitions, cross fertilising ideas and getting away from patterned thinking. Diversity Training: Diversity training considers all of the diverse dimensions in the workplace race, gender, age, disabilities, lifestyles, culture, education, ideas and backgrounds while designing a training programme. It aims to create better cross-cultural sensitivity with the aim of fostering more harmonious and fruitful working relationships among a firms employees. The programme covers two things: (i) awareness building, which helps employees appreciate the key benefits of diversity, and (ii) skill building, which offers the knowledge, skills and abilities required for working with people having varied backgrounds. Literacy Training: Inability to write, speak and work well with others could often come in the way of discharging duties, especially at the lower levels. Workers, in such situations, may fail to understand safety messages, appreciate the importance of sticking to rules, and commit avoidable mistakes. Functional illiteracy (low skill level in a particular content area) may be a serious impediment to a firms productivity and competitiveness. Functional literacy programmes focus on the basic skills required to perform a job adequately and capitalise on most workers motivation to get help in a particular area. Tutorial programmes, home assignments, reading and writing exercises, simple mathematical tests, etc., are generally used in all company in-house programmes meant to improve the literacy levels of employees with weak reading, writing or arithmetic skills.
Saturday, September 21, 2019
Main Features Of A Computer System Information Technology Essay
Main Features Of A Computer System Information Technology Essay The system unit is the core of the computer system. It is a rectangular box placed on or underneath your desk. The box contains many electronic components that process information, the central processing units (CPU) is one of the main components. The microprocessor or the CPU acts as the brain of the computer; another part is the random access memory (RAM). It stores information that the CPU used when the computer is on. RAM information deletes as soon as the computer switched off. On the back of the system unit there are cables plug into a specific ports. Peripheral device or device (hardware) is not part of the system unit. Mouse is use to show and select items on the computer screen. The first mouse looks a bit like a real mouse nowadays we have different shapes of mice. It is connected to the system unit by a long wire however since there are many technological improvements now we have wireless mice. The mouse usually contains a primary buttons, a wheel and a secondary buttons. The wheel allows the user to scroll through the screens for information. The pointer may change its appearance depending where it is situate on the screen. Primary button selects items on the screen by simply clicking on it. It is the principal way to interact with the computer. Keyboard The main use of the keyboard is to type text into the computer, it contains letters and numerical keys. The keyboard also has some special keys such as the function keys which is use to perform different functions relied on where they are use. Numeric keypad authorises the user to enter numbers in a quicker way. The navigation keys perform almost the same task as the mouse as it allows you to move your position within a document or webpage. Monitor A monitor shows a see able form of the information text and graphics on the computer screen. It is like a television as it displays still and moving pictured. There are two types of monitors, the cathode ray tube (CRT) and the liquid crystal display (LCD). They are both design to make sharp images. The only differences between the two monitors are: the cathode ray tube is enabling you to afford it as it is cheaper and the liquid crystal is thinner and lighter. Speakers Speakers are use to hear the sound effects from the computers and listen to music. It is either built in the system unit or connected to the computer using cables. (http://course.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/s040643/EDD5169H/Computer%20Hardware.gif) Operating system An operating system is the essential interface that is connect to a computer and performs various functions. It is software that acts like the core of computer system. The basic functions of the operating system is the drivers and the security concerns. Drivers are programs to enable the operation of the devices specially the one installed on the system (mouse, keyboard, printer, etc). It translates the commands from operating system and also translates it back from the component to the operating system. The operating system also performs other functions such as debug errors and maintains the system. As computer software is a human creation. It makes the operating system lie down to errors so there are security concerns. Programmers sometime make mistakes that are often implement after testing while other software developers provide more efficient one. It means that some of the operating system is more prone to errors while the other software is more secure. Sometimes bugs in software may prohibit the system to communicate with the hardware devices. The instabilities of the software may result to crashes, which consist of freezing and unresponsive. This result may vary depending on the operating system. It can also lead to a point where the computer in to be reboot. The software bugs also allows unauthorised user to get to the system since its vulnerabilities enable the attackers to exploit and take complete control of the system. They can install Malware and attack other machines. So programmers provide security patches rather than updating the operating system. Types of Operating system Mac occupies the medium range to high end as a result Mac are popularly considered to be more expensive than other pcs. Though Mac suffers from relatively very few hacks, security holes Mac OS x does exist, just like in any other operating system. The Mac has seen significant market share increases in recent years, something that has also increased the amount of Mac-compatible software. MS-DOS, which is short for disk operating system, is an operating system for PCs that uses a command-line user interface. The command-line interface is difficult to learn, and the syntax and commands are not easy for the casual user to remember. There are several other operating systems such as Linux and other windows. (http://ischoolsclsbatungbakal.files.wordpress.com/2009/06/operating-system-interfaces.jpg) 2. Compare and contrast the different formats of computer systems. Large organisations make use of mainframe computers. Mainframes are use for applications such as Bulk Data Processing and Enterprise Resource Planning. Mainframes can be use for several small servers as it has the power to host multiple operating systems. Minicomputers also called workstations lie between mainframes and microcomputers. They used transistor and core memory technologies. The 12-bit PDP-8 minicomputer was the first successful one. Desktop can be use in a single location it is mainly used in workplaces and households. The power consumption is less critical to that of laptops. Laptops can be miniaturised, optimised and it is portable. Laptops are run using battery or an external battery. They have an inbuilt keyboard, touch pad (mouse) and LCD. 3.Describe the development of the processor in the last fifty years in relation to the development of Personal computers. A computer processor is the most defining thing that man invented .It is one of the most advanced technologies available. Since the development of the computer processors is growing every year. The processors speeds are really high and still increasing. Processors are found almost everywhere cars, cameras etc. Games consoles, digital audio players and GPS device are one of the most high technologies nowadays. The development of these technologies is getting more and more complicated. In 1972 the first processor was made by Intel, it was a 4-bit processor (Intel 4004) with a 740 kHz. After which the second processor was built 16-bit processor that had a 5 MHz speed. IBM produced a later version of the 8086 processor it was the first personal computer invented. Several technologies were being made during this time where a later version was launch the Intel 486, which has a 32-bits, and with a speed of 16MHz. The concept of multitasking was the developed where the processor was enable to run both real mode and protected mode. The System Management Mode (SMM) were attribute for power saving and computers went from Command line interface (CLI) to Windows, icons, menu and pointing device (WIMP) interaction. In 1993 the Pentium processor (Intel) came out with a speed of 60 MHz which next after was the Pentium II which has a speed of 233MHz, Pentium III has a speed of 450 MHz followed by Pentium 4 with a speed of 1.3 GHz. Intel inaugurated the Pentium M with a lower speed of 900 MHz. It has a power saver since the battery of the laptop last longer. In 2006 Core processor was introduced which has a speed of 1.6 GHz, Core Duo has a virtualisation capability which allow the computer system to perform multitask on the same computer. AMD even being one off the processor manufacturer it was not known until 1991 where they launched the AM386 processor with a speed of 40 MHz (same capability as the Intel 386). In 1999 Athlon Processor the crucial competitor to Pentium III was introduced by the AMD with a speed of 500 MHz. It was the first processor that reached 1 GHz at that time. The Computer processor continues their development to get the fastest processor. From 1975 the number of transistors used on a chip has double every year. Software programmers will create more cores that will allow multi-thread applications to be utilised. Computers will develop fast processors with multimedia applications such as graphics software, video players so on. (Ref: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/history-of-computer-processors.html) for dates and information. Intel Processor Generations Summary Generation Intel CPU Approx. Year 1st Generation 8086 (1) 1980  . 80186 1981  . 80286 1982 2nd Generation 80286 (2) 1982 3rd Generation 80386 (3) 1987 4th Generation 80486 (4) 1990  5th Generation Pentium (5) 1993  6th Generation Pentium Pro (6) 1995  . Pentium II 1996  . Pent. MMX 1997 . Celeron 1998  . Pentium 3 1999  7th Generation Pentium 4 (7) 2000  . Celeron II 2000  . Duron 2000 8th Generation Intel Core (8) 2006 (http://www.vaughns-1-pagers.com/computer/cpu-evolution.htm) (Macs)  (PCs) External Bits Internal Bits Intel CPU Approx. Year AMD CPU 8-bit 8080 1975 1976 8 16 8088 1977 8086 (1) 1980 16-bit 80186 1981 80286 1982 16 32 80286 (2) 1982 1985 32-bit 80386 (3) 1987 29000 80486 (4) 1990 1991 Pentium (5) 1993 32 64 1994  586 64-bit Pentium Pro (6) 1995 Pentium II 1996 K5 Pent. MMX 1997 K6 Celeron 1998 Pentium 3 1999 Athlon 64 128 Pentium 4 (7) 2000 K7 Celeron II Duron 128-bit 2001 2002 128 256 2003  256-bit 2004 2005 Intel Core (8) 2006 4. What are the SRAM, DRAM, ROM and Cache? And how are their functions different in the Computer system. SRAM that is static random access memory is more common than the DRAM. Compared to a DRAM SRAM does not have to be refresh and the access time is lower as well. SRAM does not have to be paused like the DRAM and it is often used as a memory cache. Unfortunately it is really expensive. However DRAM (Dynamic RAM) is most commonly used for personal computers and workstation. The personal computer processor can access any part of the memory directly rather than having to proceed from the beginning. DRAM has to be refreshed since it runs on the principle of moving current from a switch with two directions. The DRAM capacitors loose their charge really rapid. ROM (Read only memory) authorise you to write data only once and you allows you to read it as many time you want. It is also refers memory chips. Example of ROM is CD. A cache is use to store data temporary that you tend to use again. It is a block RAM that the CPU and Hard drive have a tendency to use regularly. Cache memory let the user to read the data faster that a RAM does, even if it is small. 5. What are the key development stages of computer systems since 1946? The key development stages often refer to the fundamental change occurs in the way computers operate that is increasingly smaller, cheaper, more efficient and reliable device. It is break down into four main stage of development know as generations development. First Generation is from 1946 -1958 (Vacuum tubes) Second Generation is from 1959-1964 (The era of the transistors) Third Generation is from 1965- 1979 (Integrated circuit Miniaturising the computer) Fourth Generation is from 1971-present. (The era of microprocessors) First generation (1946-1956) vacuum tubes. The first generation computer is the first one using Electronic numerical integrator and computer (ENIAC). They used vacuum tubes for the circuit and the magnetic drums for memory. It used to depend on machine language. It was really difficult to perform since it was the lowest programming language that was understand by computers. The input of the computer was based on punched cards and paper tape whereas the output was shown on the printouts. Then after in 1951 the first commercial computer was introduce UNIAC (universal automatic computer). IBM also launched the SAGE which was one of the leading computer Second Generation is from 1959-1964 (The era of the transistors) This generation is when most practical work was developing as the discovery of the transistors was made. It is when the real time reservation system begin the second generation of computers. As the transistors help the computer to improve its performance less space will be used, became more reliable, cheaper and finally less energy power was used. Third Generation is from 1965- 1979 (Integrated circuit Miniaturising the computer) 1965 it is when Gordon Moore predicts that the number of chips use will double up in a transistor. It was in the third generation that Intel had developed newly improve memory chip after which the microchip was introduce with a 256-bit RAM. Fourth Generation is from 1971-present. (The era of microprocessors) It is in the fourth generation that Intel develop a CPU through a micro chip. It is when Pascal programming language was written. The development has improved in a really wider way with windows, Mac etc. However the fifth generation is believed it will consist of artificial intelligence is a major way. Where the experts system can help Doctors for example to reach a diagnose. Things like Problem solving Robotics Natural language Expert system will be able to use by computers. 6. Use the internet to find a high performance personal Computer and explain the features within it. Specifically Discuss: Storage IP/OP Processor Speed/Power Multimedia facilities Other highlighted selling points. The best PC (personal computer) I found was the HP with an operating system capability of 64-bit on a speed of 2.66 GHz Intel processor. With an 8 hour battery life and a dimension of 33.1 x 24.3 cm. It has an internal drives of 320GB with a hard disk drives 7200 rpm. It has the latest wireless and Bluetooth facilities. System features Processor type Intel ® Coreà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢2 Duo Processor P8800 (2.66 GHz, 3 MB L2 cache, 1066 MHz FSB) Operating system installed Genuine Windows Vista ® Business with downgrade to Windows XP Professional custom installed Chipset Mobileà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ Intel ® GM45 Express Chipset Dimensions and weight Product weight Starting at 2.1 kg Product dimensions (W x D x H) 3.1 (at front) x 33.1 x 24.3 cm Memory Standard memory 3 GB 800 MHz DDR2 SDRAM Memory slots 2 SODIMM slots supporting dual channel memory Storage Internal drives 320 GB 7200 rpm SATA Optical drives Upgrade bay: LightScribe DVD+/-RW SuperMulti with Double Layer Graphics Display 35,8 cm (14.1) WXGA (1280 x 800 resolution) or 35,8 cm (14.1) Illumi-Lite LED WXGA (1280 x 800 resolution) or 35,8 cm (14.1) WXGA+ (1440 x 900 resolution) optional 2 MP Webcam with Business Card Reader Software Graphics Mobileà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ Intel ® Graphics Media Accelerator 4500MHD Expansion features Ports 3 USB 2.0 ports, VGA, stereo microphone in, stereo headphone/line out, Firewire (1394a), power connector, RJ-11, RJ-45 Slots Slots available for additional devices: 1 ExpressCard/54 slot, Secure Digital slot Audio High Definition Audio, stereo speakers, stereo headphone/line out, stereo microphone in, integrated dual-microphone array Integrated camera 2 MP webcam Keyboard Full-sized keyboard Whats in the box Enhanced dual pointing devices (touchpad and pointstick) with scroll zone Communications Network interface Intel Gigabit Network Connection (10/100/1000 NIC) Wireless technologies Intel 802.11a/b/g/draft-n, Bluetooth ® 2.0 Power and operating requirements Battery type 6-cell (55 WHr) Lithium-Ion battery Power features 6-cell (55 WHr) Lithium-Ion battery Battery life Up to 8 hours (more than 17 hours with the HP Extended Life Battery and up to 24 hours with the HP Ultra-Capacity Battery) Operating temperature range 0 ° to 35 ° C Security management Security management McAfee Security Solution, Kensington Lock slot, HP Privacy Filter (http://h10010.www1.hp.com/wwpc/uk/en/sm/WF06b/321957-321957-64295-3955549-3955549-3688868-4017987.html )
Friday, September 20, 2019
Phases Of A Cell Cycle Biology Essay
Phases Of A Cell Cycle Biology Essay Interphase is a part of the cell cycle in which the cell reproduces more DNA, it is the time when a cell accomplishes the most this is the time that the cell is preparing to divide. It is duplicating its organells and increasing the amount of cytoplasm it has in order to undergo cell division interphase constitutes the longest period of the cell cycle and is divided into three successive phases. G1 phase S phase G2 phase 2.1.1. G1 Phase: The first part of the inter phase is G1. In G1phase the cellular metabolic rate is high in which cell normally grows in size. And synthesis of m-RNA, t-RNA, r-RNA and proteins occur. This phase involves accumulation and synthesis of specific enzymes needed to control DNA-synthesis and production of DNA base unit so that the supply is at hand when synthesis being. 2.1.2. S Phase: The S phase is the intermediate phase between G1growth phase (gap-1) and G2 growth phase (gap-2).During the portion of cell cycle the DNA molecule are actually duplicated to produce two similar daughter cells. 2.1.3. G2 Phase: During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the cell will continue to grow. It is also called pre-mitotic phase. In this phase energy is stored for chromosome movement. Mitotic specific protein RNA and microtubule subunit are synthesis. 2.2. Mitotic Phase: This phase involves the division of nucleus and division of cytoplasm. At this stage the growth and protein production stop. All of the cell cycle focused on the complex and orderly division into two similar daughter cells. Mitosis is much shorter than inter phase. Lasting phase only one two hours. As in both G1 and G2, there is a checkpoint in the middle of mitosis that ensures the cell is ready to complete cell division actually stages of mitosis can be viewed at animal cell mitosis. 3. Mitosis: It is a process of nuclear and cell division in which the numbers of chromosomes in daughter cells are same as that of parent cell. 4. Phases of Mitosis: Mitosis is a continuous process which has two phases. Karyokinesis Cytokinesis 4.1. Karyokinesis: This phase involves the nuclear division .Animal cell has a special structure for cell division called centriole. At the start of mitosis centriole is divided into two pairs. Each pairs migrate to the opposite side of the nucleus thus forming two poles of the dividing cell. The microtubules including aster and spindle are called mitotic apparatus. There size is larger than nucleus. The function of the mitotic apparatus is to attach and capture chromosomes, align them correctly and separate them so that equal distribution of chromosomes should take place. The microtubules are set of fibers which are three in number. They originate from each pair of centrioles. One set of microtubules is called astral microtubules which form aster outward. The other two sets form the spindle in which one is kinetochore microtubules and other is polar microtubules and other is polar microtubules. 4.1.1. Stages of Karyokinesis: Karyokinesis can be divided into four stages. Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase 4.1.1.1. Prophase: Chromosomes can not be seen in the interphase stage even by electron microscope. However by using some special stains chromatin network of fine threads can be seen which is called chromatin. The following events take place in prophase. Nuclear envelope along with nucleoli disappear Centrioles completely migrate towards their poles Mitotic apparatus is organized Cytoplasm becomes more viscous The chromatin material get condensed by folding and chromosomes appear as thin threads and eventually become thick consisting of two chromatids attached with centromere 4.1.1.2. Metaphase: At metaphase chromosomes have become completely thick consisting of chromatid. These chromatids are attached to centromere. The Cells has special area the kinetochore where kinetochore fibres of mitotic apparatus attach. The kinetochore fibers of spindle are attached to kinetochore region of chromosomes and align them at the equator of the spindle forming equatorial plate or metaphase plate. Each kinetochore gets two fibers each from opposite poles. 4.1.1.3. Anaphase: It is very important phase of mitosis. The kinetochore fibers of spindle contract toward their respective poles exert force which separates the two chromatids from centromere. In this way two sister chromatids are formed. Half of them move to one pole and other half towards other pole. 4.1.1.4. Telophase: As the chromosomes reach to their respective pole telophase starts. The chromosome starts unfolding and become chromatin material. Mitotic apparatus starts disappearing while nucleus and nuceolic appears and thus two nucleoli are formed at each pole of the cell. 4.2. Cytokinesis: Cytokinesis is a phase of the mitosis in which whole of the cell divides. At this phase the astral microtubules send signals to equatorial region of cell which activate action and myosin to form contractile ring. This contractile rings form cleavage furrow in the center of cells which get deepens gradually and ultimately divide the parent cell into two daughter cells. 5. MEIOSIS: Meiosis is a special type of cell division in which the numbers of chromosomes in daughter cells are reduced to half as compare to parent cell. In animals it occurs in diploid cells at gamete formation while in plants it takes place at spore formation at gamete formation. Meiosis can take place in two divisions Meiosis I Meiosis II The first meiotic division is reduction division and second meiotic division is like that of mitosis. After two divisions diploid cell produce four haploid cells. 5.1. Stages of Meiosis I: Meiosis I is further divided into four sub-stages as following Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase Telophase 5.1.1. Prophase I: Prophase I is a very long phase. The chromosomes in this phase behave like the homologous pairs which is different as that from mitosis. The similar chromosomes are called homologous chromosomes. Prophase I is divided into five sub stages. Leptotene Zygotene Pachytene Diplotene Diakinesis 5.1.1.1. Leptotene: At this stage the chromosomes appear as very long narrow thread and the size of nucleus increase and homologous chromosomes become closer. 5.1.1.2. Zygotene: First essential phenomenon of meiosis i.e. pairing of homologous chromosomes called synapsis starts. This pairing is highly specific and exactly pointed, but with no definite starting point. At this phase nuclei also disappears. Each paired but no fused complex structure is called bivalent or tetrad. 5.1.1.3. Pachytene: The pairing of homologous chromosomes is completed. Chromosomes become more and more thick. Each bivalent has four chromatids, which wrap around each other. Non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange their segments due to chiasmata formation. During the process called crossing over. In this way reshuffling of genetic materials occur, which produces recombination. 5.1.1.4. Diplotene: The next stage of meiosis is diplotene where bivalents are distinct and contracted. During this phase the chiasmata of each bivalent undergoes terminalization that are the movement of two homologous chromosomes to the two ends. During the stage of prophase due to chromosome contraction they are very distinct as visible bivalent structure. 5.1.1.5. Diakinesis: Next phase is diakinesis where the chiasmata are fully terminalized and the two chromosomes remain together though fully terminalized. 5.1.2. Metaphase I: Nuclear membrane disorganize at the beginning of this phase. Spindle fibres originate and the kinetochore fibres attach to the kinetochore of the homologous chromosomes from each pole and arrange bivalent at the equator. The sister chromatids of individual chromosomes in bivalent behave as a unit. 5.1.3. Anaphase I: In this succeeding anaphase that is Anaphase I, the homologous centromeres move towards opposite direction of the pole. The centromere of each chromosome remains intact. The chromosome being separated there is no chaismata at this stage. 5.1.4. Telophase: Nuclear membranes organize around each set of chromosomes at two poles. Nucleoli reappear thus two nuclei each with half number of chromosome is formed, later on, cytoplasm divides thus terminating the first meiotic division. 6. Summary: Each cell cycle has two phase- interphase and mitotic phase. Inter phase is highly metabolic phase and subdivided into G1, S, G2 phases. Dividing phase involves the division of nucleus and division of cytoplasm. Mitosis is an equational cell division occurs in somatic cells producing two cells of the same chromosomes number of parent cell. Karyokinesis occurs in four phase à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬prophase, anaphase, metaphase, telophase and is followed by cytokinesis. Meiosis is a reductional cell division occurs in germ cells producing four cells of half chromosomes number from that of parent cell, Nucleus divides twice in meiosis. Prophase I is of longer duration with substages leptotene, zygotene, pachytene. diplotene, diakinesis and is characterized by bivalent formation and crossing over through chaismata formation.
Thursday, September 19, 2019
The Black Market :: essays research papers
          The Black Market is defined as people who engage in illicit trade. Smuggling of Nuclear weapons plays a role in this. The Russians, U.S., and other countries are involved. Russia has been one the move since the Cold War ended. The Russians position threat to many lives with nuclear sales. Many Russian affiliations and events are to blame including Russian Mafia, military intelligence, Trading Air, collapse in economy, and disgruntled Nuclear employees. Russian Crime organizations have grown to a high number since the end of the Cold War. The Nuclear Black market is no stranger to the Russian Mafia. Russia may be poised to sell nuclear weapons to the highest bidder as organized crime expands its influence in Russian society (Phinney). Some of the 200 Russian organized crime groups now operate worldwide, including in the United states and gaining the ability to manipulate its banking system and financial markets (Phinney). Roughly two-thirds of Russia’s economy is under sway of crime syndicates, and protection rackets have been the norm since the collapse of communism(Phinney). The Russian Mafia and the antifada becoming nuclear powers or the likelihood that some of this dangerous material being transferred to rogue states like Iran, Iraq, or North Korea. Even if the uranium and plutonium are not used to build nuclear technology, these materials are radioactive and therefore intrinsically dangerous to any one who comes in contact with them, particularly the smugglers themselves. In March 1995, U.S. Customs agents in Miami launched a two-year undercover investigation reaching into high-level official circles in Russian, Bulgaria, and Lithuania. It would become the first credible case of a scenario to smuggle tactical nuclear weapons into the U.S. (Frontline). According to Russia’s Ministry of Internal Affairs, the government agency in charge of combating organized crime, 40 percent of private business, 60 percent of state-owned enterprises and between 50 percent and 85 percent of banks are controlled by organized crime. According to Russia’s Ministry of Internal Affairs, the gov ernment agency in charge of combating organized crime, 40 percent of private business, 60 percent of state-owned enterprises and between 50 percent and 85 percent of banks are controlled by organized crime.      Russia crime organizations are not even the source when it comes to smuggling Nuclear Weapons. Warheads come from one place, the military. There is major corruption in the Russian Military. Although, you can make your own type of Nuclear weapons, but this is a different case.
Wednesday, September 18, 2019
The Black Panther Tank Battalion Essay -- essays research papers
The 'Black Panther' Tank Battalion The 761st 'Black Panther' Tank Battalion was the first African-American armored unit to see combat. Before and during mobilization for World War II, officials in Washington, D.C., debated whether or not African-American soldiers should be used in armored units. Many military men and politicians believed that blacks did not have the brains, quickness or moral stamina to fight in a war. Referring to his World War I experiences, Colonel James A. Moss, commander of the 367th Infantry Regiment, 92nd Division, stated, "As fighting troops, the Negro must be rated as second-class material, this primarily to his inferior intelligence and lack of mental and moral qualities." Colonel Perry L. Miles, commander of the 371st Infantry Regiment, 93rd Division, voiced a similar opinion: "In a future war, the main use of the Negro should be in labor organizations." General George S. Patton, Jr., in a letter to his wife, wrote that "a colored soldier cannot think fast enough to fight in armor." The armed forces embraced these beliefs even though African Americans had fought with courage and distinction in the Revolutionary War and every other war and conflict ever waged by the United States. They overlooked the fact that four regiments of the 93rd Division had served with the French during World War I and that the French government had awarded the coveted Croix de Guerre to three of the four regiments and to a company of the fourth, as well as to the 1st Battalion, 367th Infantry Regiment, 92nd Division. Lieutenant General Leslie J. McNair, chief of the U.S. Army ground forces, was the main proponent of allowing African Americans to serve in armored units. He believed his nation could ill afford to exclude such a potentially important source of manpower. The black press, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and the Congress of Racial Equality also placed increasing pressure on the War Department and President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration to allow black soldiers to serve on an equal footing with white soldiers. In the summer of 1940, Congress passed into law the Selective Training and Service Act, which said, "In the selection and training of men under this act, there shall be no discrimination against any person on account of race and color." In October, howeve... ...17th Airborne Division. Assigned at various times to the Third, Seventh and Ninth armies, the Black Panthers fought major engagements in six European countries and participated in four major Allied campaigns. During that time, the unit inflicted 130,000 casualties on the German army and captured, destroyed or aided in the liberation of more than 30 towns, several concentration camps, four airfields, three ammunition supply dumps, 461 wheeled vehicles, 34 tanks, 113 large guns, and thousands of individual and crew-served weapons. This was accomplished in spite of extremely adverse weather conditions, difficult terrain not suited to armor, heavily fortified enemy positions, extreme shortages of replacement personnel and equipment, an overall casualty rate approaching 50 percent and the loss of 71 tanks. In 1978--33 years after the end of World War II--the 761st Tank Battalion received a Presidential Unit Citation. In 1997, 53 years after giving his life on the battlefield, Sergeant Ruben Rivers was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor. The motto of the 761st Tank Battalion has always been "Come Out Fighting." In World War II, that is exactly what the Black Panthers did.
Tuesday, September 17, 2019
Costing in Banking Service Essay
It does so by describing the partial costs and full cost systems in banking institutions. It then looks at the limitations of these approaches to the current competitive conditions and goes on to consider the applicability of the activity based costing system in the allocation of indirect transformation costs to branches, products and customers. Finally, we will look at the findings of a questionnaire to Spanish savings banks in order to evaluate how widespread these systems are and how they are used in savings banks. We found that direct costs systems predominate in customer and products entries whereas full costs systems are much more widespread in the case of branches. Furthermore, we also found that the use of activity based costs systems is very limited. Keywords: Saving banks Cost structure Management accounting Cost systems Activity based costing. JEL Classification Codes: M41 – Accounting G21 – Banks; Other Depository Institutions. 1. Introduction Historically, management accounting in banking institutions was introduced considerably later in comparison with companies in other sectors. There are a number of reasons for this limited development. This was due, on the one hand, to external causes. For example, it was not until the 80’s that competitive conditions in the banking sector fostered the development of accounting management planning and control systems. On the other hand, there were also internal conditions that had to do with the nature of the banking business and the operations that these companies carry out, which differ significantly to those of other sectors. This hindered the transfer of models that had basically been developed for industrial companies to the financial sector. As regards internal factors, the accounting regulations set down by regulating bodies of the banking system have traditionally been the starting point from which banking institutions have drawn up their accounting information. The purpose of he latter was clearly to address the needs of central banks that used this accounting information in order to supervise and control the solvency of the financial system and to control the relevant variables of monetary policy (Tà ºa and Larriba, 1986, p.37; Cates, 1997, p.51-56; Kimball, 1997, p.24). Furthermore, the environment in which these companies had traditionally operated had been sufficiently stable in order for them not to see the need to improve their management accounting systems (AECA, 1994a, p.12-13). On an internal level, Waden-Berghe (1990, p.569) Rouach and Naulleau (1992, p. 101-102) and Carmona (1994, p.210) point out that the characteristic features of the products and the production process of banks hinder the application of management accounting techniques: the intermediation function they carry out, the permanence on the balance sheet of the main sources of income and expenses, the problematic definition of outputs and input, given that there is no difference between the nature of the raw material obtained via financial markets or deposit taking and the final product (loans), the fixed cost and marginal revenue syndrome, the difficulty in allocating indirect costs to cost objects or the diffuse figure of the customer-supplier. However, the deep transformation of the banking system, and, more specifically, deregulation, disintermediation and innovation processes, have ushered in changes to the competitive behaviour and the information needs of banking institutions. We can therefore assume that the accounting systems of these companies have most probably also evolved and established new conceptual frameworks 1. As a consequence of growing competition in the banking sector and the reduction of financial margins, banking institutions have had to give increasingly greater importance to the planning and control of their non financial costs, which has opened up the debate around the adequacy of the costs systems currently in use in these companies (Scias, 1985, p. 48; Kimball, 1993, p. 5-20; Bos, Bruggink et al., 1994, p.12; Carmona, 1994, p. 213). This essay aims to analyse the characteristics of the costs systems of Spanish savings banks which operate in the universal retail banking segment. In the first place, we will look at the different theoretical models that will enable us to analyse the financial intermediation activity from a microeconomic viewpoint. Secondly, we will go on to describe the characteristics of non financial costs in banking institutions, given that they influence the application of management accounting in these companies. Thirdly, we will put forward a costs classification in savings banks that facilitates the allocation of their non financial costs to different cost objects (centre of responsibility, products, customers and activities). Based on the above, we can then go on to assess the use of different costing systems, looking at both traditional costing systems (partial and full) as well as activity based costing. The study finishes by presenting the results of a questionnaire given to the heads of management control of Spanish savings banks with the aim of finding out which costing systems are currently in use and how they are likely to evolv e in the future. 2. The Production Process in Banking Institutions This section aims to present an overview of the different theoretical approaches that interpret the productive process of banking institutions. According to Bergà ©s and Soria (1993, p. 17-23) the models that explain the productive process of banking institutions can be grouped into three groups: partial decision models, portfolio theory and services production. Let’s look at these in more detail. 2.1. Partial Decision Models Partial models focus either on the assets and investment decisions (loans versus the treasury) or on the composition of the liability structure (capital versus deposits), considering the other part of the balance sheet as an external or exogenous variable. In these models, the banking institution’s balance sheet is 1 We can identify various evolution stages in bank accounting and management; for example, Chisholm and Duncan (1985, p.27-33) have divided its historical evolution into three stages, Faletti (1986, p.88-95) refers to four stages, Rezaee (1991, p.26-28) and Roosevelt and Johnson (1986, p.30-31) have established five stages, and Ernst & Young (1995, p.25-31) outline up to 11 phases. Having said this, the different number of stages by different authors reflect differences in nuances but not in fundamental aspects because the evolution of information drawn up by management accounting in banking institutions may be seen as a continuous process rooted in financial accounting that is evolving towards objectives that are more and more related with tactical and strategic decision making. viewed as the key element, because each of its components is modelled individually (Santomero, 2000, p.4). When loans are regarded as outputs of the banking institution, it is assumed that, given a certain level of exogenously determined deposits, which are not subject to optimization, the company’s management decision is focused on determining what proportion of deposited funds will be allocated to the provision of loans and what proportion will be kept in the treasury. This is due to the fact that the banking institution needs to maintain a certain level of liquid reserves in order to address possible withdrawals of deposits. Obviously, maintenance of this treasury will generate an opportunity cost, so banking institutions will have to minimise this opportunity cost by maintaining the treasury at a minimum level. However, if the treasury that is kept is insufficient, the company exposes itself to a high liquidity risk (Baltensperger, 1980, p.3; and Swank, 1996, p.176). When deposits are regarded as outputs, the problem focuses on determining the optimum balance between deposits and equity (Swank, 1996, p.177). According to this approach, a situation of insolvency could be brought on not only by the mass withdrawal of customer deposits, but also if the value of assets drops below that of liabilities. This scenario is less and less likely the fewer the deposits. It can therefore be minimised by increasing the volume of equity (Baltensperger, 1980, p.1011; Swank, 1996, p.177). However, given that the opportunity cost of equity is greater than the financial cost generated by deposits, in order to maximise profitability the bank need to minimise the bank’s own funds, which increases the possibility of an insolvency scenario and of meeting the ensuing costs associated with it (Baltensperger, 1980, p.13). 2.2. Portfolio Theory Based Models The previous models seek to address the structure of assets or liability management whilst considering the other part of the balance sheet as exogenous. A comprehensive theory of the productive process of banking institutions needs to simultaneously account for the structure of assets and liabilities. The efficient portfolios selection model for banking institutions put forward by Markowitz (1959) and developed by Pyle (1971, p.737-747) concomitantly looks at decisions concerning assets as well as liabilities and gives us a more comprehensive view of the interrelations between assets and liabiliti es. Having said this, it must be acknowledged that although portfolio theory overcomes the limitations of partial models by determining optimum treasury, loans and deposits levels together, it still has its drawbacks. The most relevant to this study has to do with the fact that both partial models and portfolio selection theory regard non-financial costs as irrelevant when it comes to estimating the output level and composition of banking institutions (Swank, 1996, p. 194). 2.3. Models Based on the Production of Services and Real Resources The provision of financial services entails transformation costs which are not contemplated in the abovementioned models. The services production model advocates that the production processes of banking institutions cannot be properly analysed by simply looking at the management of its optimal assets and liabilities structure, but that we also need to take into account the fact that both financial intermediation and the provision of other banking services generate transformation costs, which entail the use of real resources both human and technological (Baltensperger, 1980, p. 27-29). The models developed by Pesek, (1970, p. 357-385); Saving (1977, p. 289-303) and Sealey and Lindley (1977, p.1251-1266) are approaches based on production and cost functions, and enable us to study the banking institution’s behaviour from the point of view of profit maximisation. According to the above models, the activity of banking institutions consists of providing a range of different financial services (both intermediation and other kinds of services), the production of which can be expressed in accordance with a production function. The inputs of this production function are a combination of different types of factors consisting of real resources whereas the outputs are different possible combinations of assets, liabilities and services. Hence the production function, along with the balancing of the accounts between assets, liquidity and liabilities, interest rates that are externally set by the market and legally established coefficients, make up the restrictions under which banking institutions must operate and try to maximise their profits. These profits will ultimately depend on the difference between revenue generated from the sale of their services on the one hand and the total costs of their inputs both financial and non financial on the other (Sealey and Lindley, 1977, p. 1255; Santomero, 2000, p.3). The following sections will discuss the problematic of the costing structure of real resources in banking institutions and look at how these are classified for management accounting purposes. This will be followed by an overview of the different costing systems identified in the literature, partial costs, full costs and activity based costing. And finally, we will present the findings of an empirical research study concerning the costing systems used by Spanish savings banks. 3. The Cost Structure of Banking Institutions Before we proceed to assess the different existing cost systems and their application to banking, we would like to highlight some of the characteristic features of the banking business which influence the cost structure of its costing systems. These characteristic features can be summed up as follows (Sloane, 1991, p.76-79; Sapp, Rebischke et al., 1991, p.56-57): †¢ Variable work load: the volume of operations fluctuates enormously from one moment to the next, which obviates the problem of capacity management, given that at certain times there are â€Å"peaks†whilst at other times there are â€Å"valleys†which means that these resources are underused. †¢ High fixed costs: resources are usually allocated to covering â€Å"peaks†of activity. However, the cost of these resources does not vary with the volume of transactions, because they have a large fixed component. †¢ Predictability of the activity: although the demand for services tends to be hi ghly variable, it is relatively easy to predict, because it follows a cyclic behaviour pattern, which offers the possibility of turning part of fixed costs into variable ones by means of outsourcing. †¢ Mass services production activities: a comparison can be drawn between the high volume of repetitive operations in banking institutions and traditional industrial mass commodity manufacturing, which facilitates the use of methodologies that originated in industry and the setting up of a standard costing system. †¢ Joint production and an undefined product: the banking product is physically indefinable which makes it more complex to identify. For example, when a banking institution issues a loan to a customer, the latter must open up a current account to meet the loan payments. If on top of this the customer orders a cheque book on his current account and takes out a life insurance policy, we have four interrelated products. †¢ Low cost traceability: given that we are dealing with joint production activities with elevated fixed and indirect costs there are many resources that are shared by activities, customers, products and centres of responsibility. As far as we see it, the most significant factors that influence the applicability of different cost systems in banking institutions are on the one hand, the significant weight of indirect costs in relation to cost objects, which makes it difficult to trace them in relation to cost objects. Similarly, given that a large part of the operations carried out by banking institutions are of a repetitive nature and susceptible to standardisation, this makes it feasible to consider calculating the costs of these operations and allocating them to cost objects, and to introduce the use of standard costs as a planning and control instrument. 4. Costs Classification in Banking Institutions The classification of the non financial costs of banking institutions may prove useful in studying the applicability of different cost systems to banking institutions. Although we can make different classifications of these costs, the most relevant for our purposes is the difference between transformation and overhead costs (AECA, 1994a, p.61-62): â€Å"transformation costs are costs that are generated in profit centres and in operational cost or general services centres. In general, the costs of these centres are directly or indirectly related to the consumption of products and services on the part of customers†. At the same time, transformation costs can be divided into direct and indirect costs, depending on their relation to cost objects (AECA, 1994a, p.61): †¢ Direct costs, are those costs that can be unequivocally and directly allocated to cost objects, in other words their allocation is controlled economically in an individualised fashion. †¢ Indirect costs, are costs that cannot be directly allocated to cost objects because there is no exact allocation of funds that enables us to estimate the consumption of these costs by cost bearers, It should be noted that a significant number of transformation costs of banking institutions are dual in nature when viewed from the previous classification criterion, to the extent that certain transformation costs can be direct with respect to the branches network but indirect in relation to products and customers (De la Cuesta, 1996, p.85-87). In banking institutions, transformation costs basically correspond to personnel costs, depreciations and other general costs, which although they are difficult to allocate to customers and products, are generally easier to allocate to responsibility centres (Cole, 1995, p.152). The second costs category corresponds to overhead costs, which are generated in the bank’s organisational centres. These costs are generated by the various functions related to management, administration, organisation and control. In general, these are indirect in relation to all the cost objects. These costs are treated as costs assigned to support all the company’s functions, and as such they are independent of production volume, the existing product lines and of the markets they serve (AECA, 1994b, p.58).
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